Important Terms of Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Agnikula-Certain Rajput clans who claim to have emerged from Yajna Havana-Kunda.
Agrahara-Donation of land or taxes from a village by the king to the learned brahmans./ Tax-free villages granted to the learned Brahmanas in ancient India were known as Agrahara.
Ajivika-A heterodox sect closer to Jainism which flourished at the time of the Buddha
Akot-A town, about 42 km from Akola, from where a stone idol of Lord Adinath, the first Jain Teerthankara, was found in 1993
Amarasimha-It was one of the nine gems in the court of the legendary Vikramaditya (Chandragupta-II). His work Amarkosha occupies a dominant position in Sanskrit lexicography.
Amatya-Official designation for a high official used right from the Mauryan Period. Other officials-Mahamattas, and Adhyakshas. The Adhyakshas (or superintendents, whom Megasthenes called the Astynomoi, the magistrates of Strabo) were high-ranking officials next to the Tirthas, concerned mostly with economic functions and some military duties.
Amoghavarsha-I-The long ruling Rashtrakuta king (A.D. 814-78). He represented the height of development of his dynasty.
Aranyakas–Vedic texts, traditionally composed by hermits.
Arthashastra-A treatise on polity by Kautilya, belonging to the Mauryan period.
Asanga-A Buddhist philosopher. He was the originator of Buddhist Yogachara idealism.
Ashvaghosha-The spiritual adviser of Kanishka (the Kushan emperor) who took a leading part in the Fourth Buddhist Council at Srinagar which was presided by Vasumitra. He was a renowned Mahayana Sanskrit scholar and author of Sariputra-prakarana and Buddha Charitam. He was the greatest literary figure at Kanishka’s court.
Atisa Dipankara-The most famous teacher of Vikramasila university founded in A.D. 810 by king Dharmapala of Pala dynasty.
Ayukta-Designation of an officer frequently used in the Mauryan period.
Bhukti-An administrative unit of a kingdom in the Gupta period.
Bilhana-A Sanskrit historian and poet born in Kashmir. He left Kashmir about A.D. 1065 and became the court poet at Kalyana where he wrote an epic, Vikramadeva-charita to celebrate the reign of Vikramaditya-VI, the Chalukya king of Kalyana.
Blue Water Policy-The “Blue Water” policy is attributed to Don Francisco de Almeida, the first Viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in India. His “Blue Water” policy was to be powerful at the sea instead of building fortresses on Indian land.
Bodhisattva-A person who attains nirvana by working for the welfare of the world and voluntarily postpones release from rebirth; also regarded as an incarnation of the Buddha, prior to his own birth in the world
Brahmagupta-(598-660) of Ujjain, was a great mathematician of his time.
Brahui-A language of Baluchistan. Linguistically, it is Dravidian.
Chaitya-A sacred enclosure. The term is also used for a Buddhist place of worship.
Chandernagore-A French possession before its merger with India.
Charvaka-Charvaka is known as the greatest of the materialistic philosophers of ancient India./A religious sect following a materialist philosophy.
Chauth-A tax levied by Marathas—a contribution exacted by a military leader, which was justified by the exigencies of the situation
Nishka and Satamana-in the Vedic texts were taken to be names of coins, but they seem to be only prestige objects. Coins made of metal first appeared in the age of Gautama Buddha. The earliest were made largely of silver though a few copper coins also appear. Coins made of burnt clay belong to the Kushan period i.e., the first three Christian centuries.
Dadu-The saint from Gujarat who preached non-sectarianism in medieval times. He founded the “Brahma-Sampardaaya” (the sect of Brahma)
Dahar (or Dahir)-The Brahmana king of Sind who was defeated by the Arab invasion in A.D. 712 by Mohammadbin-Kasim, nephew and son-inlaw of al-Hajjaj, governor of Irak. The Indian ruler (Dahar) offered a brave resistance in the battle near Raor but was defeated and killed.
Darius-The Iranian ruler who penetrated into north-west India in 516 B.C. and annexed Punjab, west of Indus, and Sindh
Dhammapada-The first major work to say that salvation by means of devotion is open to humans regardless of birth, gender or station in life.
Dharmachakra-In the Gandhara art, it is the preaching mudra associated with the Buddha’s First Sermon at Sarnath
Digambara-A Jain sect whose followers do not believe in keeping even a small piece of cloth on themselves.
Dilmun-The Mesopotamian texts speak of three intermediate trading stations called Dilmun (probably Bahrain on Persian Gulf), Makan (probably the Makran coast, Oman).
Garbhagriha-The sanctum of the Hindu temple.
Gopuram-It has been the main feature of the South Indian temple
Hinayana-One of the two major Buddhist sects.
Ibadat Khana-A building at Fatehpur Sikri where Akbar held discussions on religious matters.
Iqta-It was the land-grant system adopted by Ala-ud-din Khilji to grant his officers as reward for services rendered. Qutabuddin Aibak was assigned the first iqta in India by Mohd of Ghor.
Jimutavahana-A famous jurist of medieval India (fifteenth century). His work Dayabhaga is a commentary on the srutis, specially on Manu.
Karshapana-The most commonly used coin in the Chola kingdom.
Kayastha-A jati associated with revenue records, first found in the Mauryan period and frequently mentioned in the medieval period
Kharoshthi-A script in which Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari and Manashera are written
Kottom-An administrative unit.
Kumaramatya-An official designation of a high official.
Mahakshatrapa–‘Great governor’, a title taken by rulers, mainly by Saka kings
Mandalam-An administrative unit, frequently used in south India.
Maski Rock edict-This minor Rock-edict is the only edict in which Ashoka refers to himself as the king of Magadha.
Meluhha-The Mesopotamians called the Indus Region.
Nadu-An administrative unit, frequently used in south India.
Nagara–Style of temple architecture developed in central and northern India.
Nastaliq-A Persian script used in medieval India.
Nicolo Conti-The Italian foreign traveller who visited Vijayanagar about A.D. 1420 during the reign of Deva Raya-II.
Pali-A Sanskrit-based language in which the Buddhist scriptures were recorded in Ceylon.
Pargana-During the rule of the so-called Slave dynasty in India, the empire was divided into provincial units called Paraganas placed under the charge of a military officer. Parganas were introduced by the Delhi Sultanate. As a revenue unit, a pargana consists of several mouzas, which are the smallest revenue units, consisting of one or more villages and the surrounding countryside. Under the reign of Sher Shah Suri, administration of parganas was strengthened by the addition of other officers, including a shiqdar (police chief), an amin or munsif (an arbitrator who assessed and collected revenue) and a karkun (record keeper).
Pasupata-A Saivite sect.
Prakrit-language received royal patronage during the reign of Satavahanas.
Rajuka-An official designation used in the Mauryan period.
Ratika-It was the basic weight (measure) in ancient India.
Ratnakara-denoted the Arabiasn Sea in ancient Indian historical geography.
Samkhya-One of the six major schools of philosophy in ancient India.
Sardeshmukhi-An additional levy of 10%, which Shivaji demanded on the basis of his claim as the hereditary Sardeshmukh (chief headman) of Maharashtra.
Sharada script-The Kashmiri language was originally written in Sharada script.
Shikhara-Tower surmounting a temple.
Shreni-Guild, organisation of craftsmen and merchants.
Stupa-Domical structure containing relics of the Buddha.
Subuktigin-The first Turkish invader of India.
Subah: A Subahwas the term for a province (State) in the Mughal Empire. Subahs were divided into Sarkars, or districts. Sarkars were further divided into Parganas or Mahals. His successors, most notably Aurangzeb, expanded the number of subahs further through their conquests. As the empire began to dissolve in the early 18th century, many subahs became effectively independent, or were conquered by the Marathas or the British.
Svetambara-One of the two major Jaina sects, which follows the code of wearing white clothes.
Tehqiq-i-Hind-Alberuni’s work on India. It contains observations on Indian civilization which are remarkably incisive and acute.
Theravada-A Buddhist sect.
Turushkadanda-A tax collected by the Gahadavalas during the early medieval India.
Vatapi (or Badami)–Capital of Chalukyas and is well-known for Chalukyan sculpture found in the cave temples here.
Vedanta-One of the six major philosophical schools in ancient India.
Vidushaka-the constant companion and confidant of the hero in Sanskrit dramas, was nearly always a Brahmin.
Vihara-Buddhist monastery.
Yakshagana-The south Indian dance tradition that appeared for the first time in the Vijayanagar period.
Zabti System-introduced by Akbar for land revenue administration. In Zabti system, land was measured and assessment of land revenue was based upon it.
Diwan-i-Wizarat-was the finance department headed by the wazir (Prime-minister)
Diwan-i-Arz was the ministry of defence headed by the Ariz-i-mamalik
Diwan-i-lnsha department of correspondence and records of the royal court was held under the charge of a central minister known as dabir-i-mamalik, dabir-i-khas or amir- munshi.
Diwan-i-Risalat-Under the period of the slave dynasty, the head of the public charities and ecclesiastical department was the sadr-us-sudur. In his capacity as rasul of the Sultan, he received appeals and complaints from public and redressed their grievances.
Diwan-i-qaza the judicial department was headed by Qazi-ul-quzat and usually the posts of the chief sadr and the chief qazi were combined in a single person.
Barid-i-mamalik was the head of the information and intelligence
Diwan-i-bandagan (department of slaves) and Diwan-i-Khairat (charity department) was created by Firuz shah Tughluq.
Diwan-i-mustakharaj (to realise arrears) was created by Alauddin Khiiji.
Diwan- i-kohi (department of agriculture) was created by Muhammad bin Tughluq.
Muhtasib– Censor of public morals. Under Akbar, his function was secularised.
Mir-i-Atish—Head of ordinance
Mir-i-Barr—Imperial officer in charge of forests.
Mir-i-Bahr—Supervised state boats and fleets.
Daroga-i-Dak Chauki— In-charge of information and intelligence department (worked independently)
Mir-i-mal—Officer in charge of Privy Purse
Mir-i-munshi— In-charge of imperial correspondence.
AMir-i-tuzuk—Master of ceremonies.
Four castes that existed in the Vijayanagar society
- Viprulu or Brahmins
- Rajjulu or rachavaru were generally the ruling class. Kshatriya varna seems to be absent.
- Matikaratalu were the merchants.
- Nalavajativaru or Sudras were mainly agriculturists.
Vipravinodins were the artisans,
Kaikkolas were the weavers who formed a prominent community.
The Tottiyans were the shepherds.
The Ijaradari systemwas introduced by Warren Hastings according to this the right to collect revenue.
Madad-i-Maash-A large class of religious divines and learned men who in return for their services were granted tracts of land for their maintenance.
Vatandar(or Watandar) is an Indian term meaning “landholder”. The title was given to landowners, particularly in Maharashtra.
In central and western India, the villagers were also subjected to forced labour called vishti by the royal army and officials-Gupta Period.
Brahmadeya: These were the lands gifted to Brahamanas.
Vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahamana peasant proprietors.
Devadana: Land gifted to temples.
Pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jaina institutions.
Administrative officers of the Sultanate period
- Wazir: The prime minister heading the Diwan-i- Wizarat
- Mustaufi-i-Mamalik: He was the auditor general responsible for state expenditure
- Mushrif-i- Mamalik: He was the incharge of accounts and receipts
- Majumdar: Preserved the record of loans advanced by the government
- Qazi-ul-Qazat: Lord Chief Justice
- Barids: Spies
- Waqia Navis: News reporters
- AmiI: In-charge of district administration.
Ibadat Khana– House of Worship
Khalisa– Land revenue directly for imperial treasury
Khots– Village head
Taniyurs-During the Chola regime, Taniyurs developed out of Brahmadeyas and temple settlements and can include several hamlets and revenue villages.
Eripatti =-A special category of land, eripatti or tank land, was known only in South India. The revenue from these lands was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank.
Ghatika-The Pallava kings of the ancient Tamil country who ruled from their capital city Kanchipuram from the 4th to 9th centuries AD were known as patrons of scholars and set-up Ghatikas. The Ghatika were the most important educational institutions in South india during ancient times.
Grama Mahajana or Grama Mahattara and Pattakila– Each village was headed by village headmen who in turn was helped by village elders.

Araghatta is a Persian wheel used in irrigation in medieval India. It is a mechanical device used to life water. The word ‘araghatta’ itself became to be called the rahat or reghat in North India, a name by which it is known even now. The Araghattikka or arahattiyanara describes the person or animal working the Araghatta and this description was extensively used in the twelfth century. Usually, men, bullocks, elephants or camels did the job of moving laterally to lift water by this system of Araghatta.
Traditional Indian water harvesting systems
- Paar is a common water harvesting practice in the western Rajasthan region. It is a common place where the rainwater flows from the agar (catchment) and in the process percolates into the sandy soil. The structure was constructed through traditional masonary technology. Normally six to ten of them are constructed in a paar This is the most predominant form of rainwater harvesting in the region. Rainwater harvested through PAAR technique is known as Patali paani.
- An open well with multiple owners (saza = partner), saza kuva is the most important source of irrigation in the Aravalli hills in Mewar, eastern Rajasthan. The soil dug out to make the well pit is used to construct a huge circular foundation or an elevated platform sloping away from the well. The first is built to accommodate the rehat, a traditional water lifting device; the sloping platform is for the chada, in which buffaloes are used to lift water. Saza kuva construction is generally taken up by a group of farmers with adjacent landholdings; a harva, a man with special skills in groundwater detection, helps fix the site.
- Johads are small earthen check dams that capture and conserve rainwater, improving percolation and groundwater recharge. Starting 1984, the last sixteen years have seen the revival of some 3000 johads spread across more than 650 villages in Alwar district, Rajasthan. This has resulted in a general rise of the groundwater level by almost 6 metres and a 33 percent increase in the forest cover in the area. Five rivers that used to go dry immediately following the monsoon have now become perennial, such as the River Arvari, has come alive.
- Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh developed the unique pat system. This system was devised according to the peculiarities of the terrain to divert water from swift-flowing hill streams into irrigation channels called pats.

Officers of the Gupta empire
- Uparika- He was directly appointed by the king as a provincial governor.
- Kumaramatyas- A link between the central and the provincial administration under the Guptas was provided by the officers called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. Kumaramatyas was a body of top-ranking officials attached not only to the king but also to the crown-prince and sometimes placed in charge of district.
- Gopasramin- In Samudraguptas period an officer working as akshapataladhikrita. Their function was to enter numerous matters in the accounts register, recover royal dues and to check embezzlement and recover fines.
- Sandhivigrahika-The foreign minister, minister of war and peace. First appeared under the rule of Samudragupta.
- Mahabaldikarta-Commander-in-Chief. Mahapratihara- Chief of palace guards.
- Pustapala- Record-keeper. Maintained record of land transactions in a district. They were also known as Karanika.
Vishaya- Vishayas were divided into smaller parts called Vithis which were the villages and consisted of the lowest unit of administration.
Mahattama,Mahattaka and Mahattara- Elder who assisted the Gramika in the village administration.
Agharikas- During the reign of Harsha, Agharikas looked after the land given in charity.
Samantas-Feudal chiefs.
Uparakshita-In Satvahanas kingdom, their function was building caves for monks.
Gaulamika- Administration of the villages was placed under them in the Satvahana period.
Valaikkarars- Troops in the royal service and were the bodyguard of the monarch
Amalguzar or Amils–Revenue officers
Arz-i-mamalik– Minister in-charge of the army of the whole country.
Ahl-i-qalam– Reporter
Baqqal– Trader, grain-dealer
Batai– Division of crop between the cultivator and landlord or the government, payments may be in kind or cash
Barid-An intelligence officer appointed by the state to collect information
Chachar– Land out of cultivation for 3-4 years.
Chaauth or Chauthaai– One-fourth of the land revenue, originally a Zamindari charge in Gujrat demanded by Shivaji as a war expense.
Charai– A tax on cattle.
Dagh System– A system of branding of horses and animal.
Dam-A copper coin considered as 1/40* the silver rupee for the official purposes.
Dastur-al-amal-Rule book
Dhimmi- A non-Muslim client or subject
Darul Mulk-Capital
Gumashta-An agent or representative
Hamam– A room for the bath of hot and cold water
Hundi-A bill of exchange
Jamabandi– Settlement of the amount of revenue assessed upon an estate or district
Jarib– A measurement, land measurement or survey
Jihat– Extra cesses
Jizya– (a) In the literature of Delhi sultanate, any tax which is not kharaj or land tax
(b) In the Shariat, a personal and yearly tax on non-Muslims.
Kankut– Estimation of land revenue
Karori– A revenue
Khiraj– Land revenue
Mahal-A group of land regarded as a unit for land revenue purposes.
Mansab– A military rank conferred by the Mughal emperor.
Mauza-Revenue term for village
Mokasa-Grant of land for military service, rent-free land
Nabud– Remission of land revenue on account of natural disasters.
Paibaqi-Land reserved for allotment in jagir
Polaj- Land continuously in cultivation
Sarrafs– Money Chargers, bankers
Saurghal- Rent-free land
Sindon-The Harappan civilisation was the earliest known civilisation to produce cotton. Known as ‘Sindon’ by the Greeks as from Sindh.
Susa and Ur–Harappans seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities like Susa and Ur
Taqavi-Advance of money for sowing or extending cultivation
Upari- Temporary occupant; tenant at will.
Usar-Barren land
Zawabit-Secular laws.
Kauthuma, Jaiminiya (Talavakara), and Ranayaniya-Recensions (Shakhas) of the Sama Veda
Janas-Aryan tribes. Their chief (rajan) was known as the Gopati or Gopa (protector of cows), and the chief queen was called the Mahisi. The jana was the largest social unit.
Gavisthi, Gaveshana, Goshu, or Gavyat: In order to get their cattle back, the Vedic God ‘Indra’ was invoked and many battles known as Gavisthi, Gaveshana, Goshu, or Gavyat (to search for cows) were fought between the Aryans and the Panis.
Gomat: Since the Rig Vedic society was a pastoral society, cattle rearing was their dominant activity. The chief measure of wealth was cattle and a wealthy man was known as Gomat.
a-vrata and a-kratu: Authors of Rig Veda distinguished themselves from other groups whom they called “dasyus” or “ dasas”. The dasas were also referred as a-vrata (who do not obey the ordinances of the gods) and akratu (those who do not perform sacrifices).
Kula and Kulapa: All the social units were based on brotherhood. Kula (Family) was the basic social unit and Kulapa was the head of the family.
Niskha: Unit of Currency of Rig Vedic Period made of gold.
Shresthins indicate the guilds or organisation of merchants.
Niskha: Exchange was still via barter, but Niskha was used as a convenient unit of value although not as a typical currency.
Magathi and Shauraseni are the dialects of Prakrit.
Patanjali’s Mahabhasya is another important text of Sanskrit grammar.
Mahashilakantaka-War engine, which was used to those stones like catapults used by Ajatashatru
Nandopakramani-a particular measuring standard invented by Dhanananda.
Kammikas-Custom officials
Shaulkika/Shulkadhyaksha-Toll officials
Bali-A voluntary payment made by the tribesmen to their chiefs in the Vedic times, became a compulsory payment, and special officers called balisadhakas were appointed to collect it.
Extended kin groups were referred as Nati and Nati-kulani. Kula denoted extended the patrilineal family, while Natakas included relatives on both mother and father’s side.
Samyutta Nikaya-In the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha is presented as consoling Prasenjit (king of Kosala), who was upset at the birth of a daughter.
Nettipakarana-The Book of Guidance, which gives a connected account of the Buddha’s teachings
Visuddhimagga-The Path to Purity, written by Buddhaghosa, deals with development from purity of discipline to nibanna/enlightenment
Arhats-In Buddhism, an arhat or arahant is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved nirvana.
Basadis-Jaina monastic establishment
Acharanga Sutra, Sutrakritanga, and the Kalpasutra-Jain Literature
Srut-kevlis-Jain onks who had knowledge of a minimum of ten Purvas (means ‘early’ or ‘previous texts’ which are considered original teachings of the Jinas) were known as Srut-kevlis. The Srut-kevlis wrote many texts (sutras) expanding the subject matter defined in the Angas. Collectively, these texts are called Angbahyas (meaning outside of Angas).
Aparigraha– Vows of Jainism. Jain ethical codeprescribes two dharmas or rules of conduct. One for those who wish to become ascetic and another for the śrāvaka (householders). Five fundamental vows are prescribed for both votaries. These five vows are: Ahiṃsā (Non-violence), Satya (Truth), Asteya (Non-stealing), Brahmacharya (Chastity), Aparigraha (Non-possession)
Ephori-Chandragupta maintained a body of spies called Overseers (the Episcopoi of the Diodorus or Ephori of Strabo and Arrian) who kept watch on events going on throughout the country and regularly reported to the King.
Key Terms relating to Mauryan Administration:
- Tirthas-The Arthashastra refers to the highest functionaries at the centre as the eighteen Tirthas, the chief among them were the Mantrin (chief minister), Purohita (high priest), Yuvaraja (heir-apparent), and Senapati (commander-in-chief).
- Nagaradhyaksha-magistrates who looked after towns and cities
- Baladhyakshas-looking after the military
- Samahartri (Chief Collector of Revenue under Mauryan Administration)-Among all the executive officials, was the most important and his responsibility involved maintaining accounts and collection of taxes from all types of sources.
- Samnidhatri-treasurer who was also in charge of the royal stores
- akshapatala (records-cum-audit office)
- dauvarika (chief of the palace attendants)
- Janapada (territory and population): Apart from Magadha with its capital at Pataliputra, the Mauryan Empire was divided into four other provinces, with capitals at Taxila (north-western India), Suvarnagiri (southern India), Tosali (eastern India), andUjjain (western India). During Ashoka’s reign, a fifth province of Kalinga was added. The provinces were further divided into divisions headed by Pradeshikas, who had no advisory council. Divisions were divided into districts under officials called Rajukas. He was assisted by Yuktas (clerks) in accounting, secretarial, and other miscellaneous works.
- Sthanikas-District head (Collected Taxes) assisted by Gopas
- The lowest administrative unit was the village, headed by Gramini/Gramika on the consultation of Grama-vriddhas (village elders).
- Higher officers called Anta-Mahamattas was responsible for the security of frontier forts.
- The Board of Infantry: Headed by Padadhyaksha
- The Board of Cavalry: Headed by Asvadhyaksha
- The Board of War Chariots: Headed by Rathadhyaksha
- The Board of War Elephants: Headed by Hastyadhyaksha
- Periodic levies of troops-Maula (hereditary warriors), Bhartiakas (mercenaries)
- Agranomoi-Land tax was collected by a class of officials
- udaka-bhaga-importance of irrigation was fully realised and peasants had to pay more tax on irrigated land
- Sitadhyaksha-People from overpopulated areas, slaves, and prisoners of war were brought to these new settlements to work on the fields. These villages belonged to the king and were looked after by government officials
- Ardhasitikas & Svaviryopajivins-different kinds of share-croppers working on the state-owned land
- Jesthaka-Traders and artisans were organised in corporate associations called shrenis or guilds or puga to protect their rights. The guilds were headed by Jesthaka.
- Certain important officials were: Panyadhyaksha (Officer in charge of trade, price fixation, and sale of goods produced by state-run manufacturing units) Sansthadhyaksha (Superintendent of markets) Rupadarshaka (Inspector of coins) Pautavadhyaksha (In charge of standardised weights and measures)
- Judges were called Dharmasthas (though Ashokan inscriptions mention city Mahamattas who were also given judicial functions), and Pradeshtris were the officers responsible for the suppression of criminals.
Malavikaagnimitram-A drama mentions the conflict between Pushyamitra and Yajnasena. Written by Kalidasa. It narrates the incident of the challenging of Pushyamitra’s Ashvamedha horse by the yavanas, which led to a military encounter between prince Vasumitra, the son of Agnimitra, and the yavana army.
Yueh–Chis-The Kushanas were also referred as Yueh–Chis (Moon tribe) or Tocharians, who were one of the five clans (Kuei-shang) into which the Yue-chi tribe was divided.
Gaulmika-The lowest level of Satavahana administration was a grama (village), which was under the charge of a gaulmika (village headman), who was also the head of a military regiment.
Gathasattasai-famous Prakrit text which is attributed to a Satavahana king called Hala.
Sangam Literature
- The Sangam corpus-Around mid-8th century, they were complied into anthologies, which were further collected into the superanthologies (the anthologies of anthologies) called the Ettutokai and the Pattuppattu.
- Agattiyam-first known book on Tamil grammar. It was supposedly written by the sage Agathiyar, and is believed to be lost beyond redemption.
- Tolkappiyam is the oldest surviving Tamil grammar. A part of the corpus of Sangam Literature
- Sangam literature can be divided into two groups: narrative and didactic. The narrative texts are called Melkannakku and the didactic works are called
- Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkural (famous work on ethics, philosophy, polity, and love, and considered the fifth Veda of Tamil Nadu)
- Tamil epics such as Silappadikaram (considered the brightest gem of early Tamil literature which deals with love story of Kovalan.
- Manimekalai (a sequel to Silappaddikaram and is considered the ‘Odyssey of Tamil poetry’, which deals with the adventures of the daughter born of the union of Kovalan and Madhaviand her subsequent conversion to Buddhism)
In the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found at several places, kings are addressed as ko and chieftains as ko or kon.
The more relevant basis of stratification was kuti (clan-based descent groups) where there was no real restriction on inter-dining and social interaction among the kuti The ruling class was called arasar, and its members had marriage relation with the vellalas (rich peasants), which formed the fourth caste of peasants. The vellalas held the bulk of land, and employed kadaisiyan (agricultural labour) to do the manual farm work.
Pariyars– agricultural labourers
Nadukal or virukkal– War heroes occupied a special position in society, and memorial stones called nadukal or virukkal were raised in honour of those who died in fighting, and they were worshipped as god.
Palshalai- A Pandya ruler, Mudukudumi, took the title Palshalai (one who has many sacrificial halls).
Sangam texts also reflect a belief in sacred or magical forces called ananku, that were supposed to inhabitdifferent objects.
The cruel practice of Sati was also prevalent in Tamil society, and it was known as tippayadal.
The communities of merchants were organised in groups known as shreni or guilds under the head called Another type of mercantile group was called sartha, which signified mobile or caravan trading corporation of interregional traders. The leader of such a guild was called sarthavaha.
Like merchants, almost all craft vocations were also organised into guilds, each under a headman called jetthaka/pamukkha.
Certain officials known as the bhandagarika were appointed to keep a record of the transactions and conventions of guilds, as mentioned in the Nigrodha Jataka. These royal officers had some authority over the guilds. Some guilds also had a shrenibala, which was some sort of a corporate organisation of warriors maintained by these guilds.
Coins- Bhita (seals with the legend of shulaphalayikanam, signifying guild of makers of arrowheads), and Ahichchhatra (seals with the legend of kumhakara, signifying guild of potters).
Chandragupta II was the first ruler to issue silver coins. He issued copper coins and is referred to as Chandra on his coins. He also issued gold coins called dinara.
Panchasiddhantika– A treatise on mathematical astronomy which is a compendium of Vedanga Jyotisha as well as Hellenistic astronomy and summarises five earlier astronomical treatises written by Varahamihira.
The most important officers under the Guptas were called the kumaramatyas, with an office of their own called the adhikarana.
The Gupta empire was divided into provinces known as deshas, rashtra, or bhuktis and their head was called The provinces were further divided into a number of districts called pradeshas or vishayas, which were placed under the charge of vishayapati. The village headman called gramadhyaksha/ gramika looked after the affairs of the village with the help of village elders.
Prominent members of the town — an adhishthana adhikarana (a board of five members). These members were: the uparika, the nagara- sreshthin (chief merchant), sarthavaha (chief caravan trader), prathama-kulika (chief artisan or merchant) and prathama-kayastha (chief in-charge of revenue collection).
Judicial System of Gupta- mahanadanyaka, who probably functioned as chief justice. Uparikas (Provinces) and Vishyapatis (District Level)
Bhatashvapati (commander of infantry and cavalry) of Gupta Dynasty
The commander in chief of the army was known as
Economic Terms under Gupta Dynasty
- Two new agricultural taxes that appear in Gupta inscriptions are uparikara (probably a tax imposed on temporary tenants) and udranga (its exact nature is not clear, but might be water tax or a sort of police tax).
- vata-bhuta tax, which probably refers to cesses for the maintenance of rites performed for the winds and spirits, and halirakara, probably plough tax
- vishti (forced labour) for serving the royal army and officials
Vakataka inscriptions mention of klipta (purchase tax or sales tax) and upaklipta (additional minor tax).
Mahakavyas
- Raghuvamsham
- Kumarasambhavam by Kalidasa
- Kiratarjuniyam by Bharavi
- Shishupal-vadha by Magha: Describes the slaying of Shishupala by Krishna.
- Naisadhiyacharitam by Sri Harsa: On the life of King Nala and Queen Damayanti
The roots of Indian mathematics can be traced to the Shulvasutras, which were the appendices to the Shrautasutras. (Gupta Period)
Varahamihira’s Panchsiddhanta, which belonged to the Gupta period, is the earliest dateable text to use zero both as a symbol and a number.
Shudraka: Writer of the play Mrichchhkatikam (Little Clay Cart), which deals with the love affair of a poor brahmana with the beautiful daughter of a courtesan.
Kumarasambhavam: Story about the birth of Shiva and Parvati’s son and also contains references of Sati system.
Harsha was a great patron of the arts and learning. He was very talented himself as it is believed that he wrote three dramas Priyadarshika, Ratnavali (both romantic comedies), and Nagananda (based on Bodhisattva Jimutavahana).
Skandhavaras-military camps under harsha administration
The Maitrakas were tributary chiefs of the Guptas, who established an independent kingdom in western India ruling over Saurashtra in Gujarat.
The Maukharies were also subordinate rulers of the Guptas and used the title of samanta. They ruled over Kannauj, a city in western Uttar Pradesh, which gradually replaced Pataliputra as the political centre of northern India.
Goladhyaya: Deals with mathematics of the spheres
Absolute Monism or Advaita/non-dualist Vedanta of Shankara: Shankara was a major proponent ofVedanta in the 9th century. He considers brahman to be without any attributes and considers knowledge or jnana to be the chief means of salvation.
Visistadvaita Advaita or qualified monism/nondualism of Ramanuja.
Sri Madhvacharya (Madhva). Madhva wrote commentaries on the Brahmasutra and Upanishads, and a work called the Bharatatatparyanirnaya, based on the Puranas and the epics.
The Chachnama, is an early 13th century Persian translation of an old Arabic history of bin Qasim
Iltutmish organised turkan-i-chahalgani, a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders, the Forty.
Iltutmish Issued purely Arabic coinage of silver tanka (first to do so) weighing 175 grams, which remains the basis of the modern rupee and copper Jital.
Amir-i-akhur-Superintendent of royal horses
According to Balban, the Sultan was God’s shadow on earth (Zil-i-Ilahi) and the recipient of divine grace (Nibyabat-i-Khudai).
Balban introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs such as sijada (prostration) and paibos (kissing the Sultan’s feet) to prove his superiority over the nobles.
Diwan-i-unzarat-Finance Department
Diwan-i-Arz –Military Department
Firoz, the Ariz-i-Mumalik, i.e., the Minister of War who later took the title of Jalaluddin Khalji
An innovative Chehra and Dagh System was introduced by Alauddin Khalji wherein the Chehra (detailed description of each soldier) and Dagh (branding of horses) was maintained.
To ensure implementation, each market was under the control of a superintendent called Shahna-i- Mandi who was assisted by an intelligence officer.
Alauddin Khalji received daily reports of the market from two other independent sources, barids (intelligence officer) and munhiyans (secret spies).
A separate department called Diwani Riyasat was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat.
Land Revenue Administration Terms under Alauddin Khalji
- Biswa was the standard unit of measurement.
- house tax (Grahi)
- pasture tax (Chari),
- Kismat-i-Khuti (Headman’s cess)