Soils in India
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups:
Alluvial Soil in India
- They are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India. They are composed of sediments deposited by rivers and the waves. Their chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world. Usually deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed).
- Occupy the plains (from Punjab to Assam) and also occur in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti in M.P. & Gujarat, Mahanadi in the MP and Orissa, Godawari in A.R and Cauvery in N.
- Can be divided into Khadar (new) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and kankary)
Black Soil in India
- Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop. These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years
- They are black due to compounds of iron and aluminium (also because of titaniferous magnetite).
- Mainly found in Deccan Plateau – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
- Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing cereals, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and
- They have high moisture retention
- Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.
Red Soil in India
- They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. The term ‘red soil’ is due to the wide diffusion of iron oxides through the materials of the
- Covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, S.E. Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and
- Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in
- Suitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes at higher elevations).
Laterite Soil in India
Found in typical monsoon conditions – under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. The alterations of wet and dry season leads to the leaching away of siliceous matter and lime of the rocks and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
- Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu,
- Poor in nitrogen and
- Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and millet cultivation if
Forest and Mountain Soils
- Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest
- In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions and less steeply inclined Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in south and the peninsular region.
Very rich in humus but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime and needs fertilizers.
- Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called
- Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar, coastal parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal and parts of UP
Soil Erosion in India
- Acute in hilly and dry regions
- Causes – depletion of forests, wrong use of lands such as cultivation on very steep slopes, cattle rearing. It ultimately leads to Badland
Remedy – Afforestation, contour cultivation etc.
Natural Vegetation in India
· Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.
Arid and Desert Soils
- A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying between the Indus and the Aravallis receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert
- This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil
- The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is originally low but its deficiency is made up to some extent by the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus the presence of phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture is
- The changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are a living example of the utility of the desert
Saline and Alkaline Soils
- In the drier parts of Bihar, Up Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are the salt-impregnated or alkaline soils. Known by different names: Reh, kallar, USAR,
- Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which percolates in the sub-soils of the plains.
- The accumulation of salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for
Peaty and Marshy Soils
Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soil. They contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 – 40% of organic matter.
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests
In areas over 250cm rainfall. In Western Ghats, hilly areas in N.E. India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Trees are rosewood, shisham, ebony, ironwood, etc.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
- In areas having rainfall between 100 – 200 cm. In peninsular region and along the foothills of Himalayas in Shivaliks, Bhabhar and
- The trees of these forests drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during the spring and early summer when sufficient moisture isn’t
- Trees are teak, sal, bamboo, sandalwood, rosewood,
Thorn Forests
- In areas having rainfall between 25 and 80cm. In arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and
- Trees are palm, acacia,
Hill Forests
- In hills of S.India and the
- The type of trees depends upon the height of the mountain : Sal and bamboo below 1000 m; oaks, chestnuts and other fruit trees, and chir forests between 1000 and 2000 m; pine, deodar, silver fern and spruce between 1600 and 3300 m; above 3600 m alpine forests with trees like silver firs, pines, birches, etc. Alpine forests give way to Alpine grasslands and scrubs as we move up
Tidal or Mangrove Forests
Also known as Littoral or Swamp Forests.
- Occur along the sea coast and in the estuaries of rivers, especially in Sunderbans and the
- Most important tree is Sundari. It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction and building purposes as well as for making
Note :
- According to the National Forest Policy, the minimum desired area which is considered safe for a tropical country like India is about 33%.
- Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Arunachal
- As per percentage of forest area to total area, first is Andaman and Nicobar Islands, followed by Mizoram, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Nagaland. They are in a very comfortable position as more than half of their area is under
- Arunachal Pradesh has the highest per capita forest
- In Mangrove forests, West Bengal holds the first position, followed by Gujarat and Andaman and Nicobar
- The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana and Punjab, because of the extensive
Biosphere Reserves in India
- The biosphere reserve program was launched by the UNESCO in 1971 under the aegis of its Man and Biosphere (MAB) Program, to provide a global network of protected areas for conserving natural
In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere reserve – came into being in 1986. So far, 14 biosphere reserves have been set up in the country.
- There are 29 tiger reserves in the country:
| Nilgiri (Western Ghats) | Similipal (Orissa) |
| Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand) | Dibru-Daikhowa (Asom) |
| Nokrek (Meghalaya) | Dehong Dabang (Arunachal Pradesh) |
| Manas (Asom) | Panchmarhi (MP) |
| Sunderbans (West Bengal) | Kanchanjunga (Sikkim) |
| Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) | Agastyamalai (Kerala) |
| Great Nicobar (Andaman and Nicobar Islands) | Achaanak maar-Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh) |
Note :
- Out of these 14, Nilgiri, Sunderbans, Manas and Gulf of Mannar have been recognized on World Network of Biosphere Reserves by
Project Tiger
It was launched on April 1, 1973 to ensure maintenance of viable population of the tigers in India.
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Note :
- Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve in AP is the largest, while Pench in Maharashtra is the Bandipur in Karnataka was the first (1973-74), while Kaziranga is the latest (2006).
Project Elephant
- It was launched in February 1992, to assist States having wild elephants to ensure long term survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural
- There are 14 Elephant Reserves in India.
Agriculture in India
Cropping Seasons in India Kharif Crops of India
- Sown in summers between May and July, and harvested after the rains, in September and
- Eg: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses,
Rabi Crops of India
- Sown at the beginning of winter and harvested before the onset of the summer season, between Feb and
- Eg: Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes,
Zayad Crops
- They are raised between April and
- g. : Melon, watermelon, cucumber, toris, leafy and other vegetables.
Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)
Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion of the product is consumed by the farmers themselves (cotton, sugarcane etc.)
Copper Minerals
Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg, Hassan).
Mica Minerals
Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), Bihar (Goya, Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool), Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur).
Petroleum Resources in India
Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat, (Ankleshwar, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai High, Bassein (south of Mumbai High), etc. Recently oil has been discovered in Cauvery basin, Krishna and Godavary basin, Khambat basin, etc.
Iron Resources
- India possesses Haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. In Madhya Pradesh (Bailadila, Jabalpur), Goa (North Goa), Karnataka (Bababudan hills, Chikmagalur, Hospet), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Naomundi), Andhra Pradesh, Orissa.
- India is the fifth largest exporter of iron ore in the world. Japan is the biggest buyer accounting for about 3/4th of India’s total exports. Major ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao and
Bauxite Resources
Chief ore for producing aluminium. In Orissa (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, Sambalpur), Jharkhand (Lohardaga, Gumla), Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Kami, Balaghat), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu.
Silver, Zinc & Lead
West Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulio, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling), Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih, Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Kamapura, Rampur, Palamau), Orissa (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher, Sambal), Madbyo Pradesh and Chhatisgarh (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha valley, Betul), etc. Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc.
Manganese
Orissa, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindawara), Karnataka(Keonjhar, Bonai, Kalahandi), Andhra Pradesh (Kadur, Garibadi).
Uranium Resources in India
Jharkhand (Jaduguda), Rajasthan (Ajmer), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Karnataka (Gulbarga).
Thorium Resources in India
Kerala coast (From Monazite sand), rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan.
Oil Refineries
There are 19 refineries in India, 16 in public sector, one in joint sector and two in private sector. Public sector refineries are located at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni, Haldia, Koyali, Mathura, Kochi, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Mumbai (2), Panipat, Narimanam, Numanigarh and Tatipaka. Joint sector refinery is at Mangalore. The private sector refinery of Reliance Limited is at Jamnagar, Gujarat and Essar Refinery at Vadinar, Gujarat.
Industries in India
Cotton Textile Industry in India
Most important industry in terms of employment and production of export goods. In Maharashtra (Mumbai, Sholapur, Pune, Kolhapur, Satara,
Wardha, Hajipur), Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vododara, Rajkot, Surat, Bhavnagar),Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore-Manchester of South India). Tamil Nadu has the largest number of cotton textile mills in India.
Silk Textile Industry in India
The location of silk industry is governed by two factors- prevalence of sericulture practices and availability of skilled labour. Karnataka is the leading producer, followed by West Bengal, Bihar, etc.
Woolen Textile Industries
In Punjab (Dhariwai, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Ferozpur), Maharashtra (Mumbai), UP (Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra, Tanakpur), etc.
Jute Industries India
India manufactures the largest quantity of jute goods in the world. Mainly located in West Bengal, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, UP, MP.
Iron and Steel Industries
Located near the sources of raw materials and fuel (coal). In Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Durgapur, Burnpur (W.B.), Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Bokaro (Jharkhand), Rourkela (Orissa), Bhilai (Chhatisgarh), Salem (T.N.), Vishakhapatnam (A.P.)
Aluminium Smelting in India
Located mainly near the sources of raw materials, means of transport and cheap electricity. In Hirakud, Koraput (Orissa), Renukoot (UP), Korba (MP), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Mettur (TN), Alwaye
Copper Smelting Industry
In Khetri, Alwar, Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan), Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Agnigundala (A.P.).
Heavy Machinery Industry
In Ranchi, Vishakapatnam, Durgapur, Tiruchirapalli, Mumbai, Kami.
Machine Tools Industry
It forms the basis for the manufacturing of industrial, defence equipments, automobiles, railway engines and electrical machinery.
In Bangalore, Pinjore (Haryana), Kalamassery (Kerala), Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Srinagar, Ajmer.
Heavy Electrical Equipments
Power generation equipments. In Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Jammu, Ramchandrapuram (Hyderabad), Hardwar, Bangalore and Jogdishpur (UP).
Railway Equipments
Locomotives in Indian Railways: In Chittaranjan (WB), Varanasi,
Jamshedpur, Bhopal. Coaches: Perambur (TN), Kapurthala (Punjab), also at Bangalore and Kolkata.
Ship Building India
Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam, Cochin Shipyard, Mumuai (Mazgaon Dock) and Kolkata (Garden Reach Workshop). For Indian Navy, only at Mazgaon.
Cycles India
In Mumbai, Asansol, Sonepat, Delhi, Chennai, Jalandhar and Ludhiana.
Tractors in India
At Faridabad, Pinjore, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai.
Fertilizers in India
- The location of fertilizer industry is closely related to petro-chemicals. About 70% of the plants producing nitrogenous fertilizers use naphtha as raw
- Naphtha is a by-product of oil refineries. Phosphate plants are dependent on mineral phosphate found in UP and MP. Now natural gas based fertilizer plants are also being set
- The Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCL) was set up in 1961. National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set up in
- In Sindri (Bihar), Nangal, Trombay, Gorakhpur, Durgapur, Namrup, Cochin, Rourkela, Neyveli, Varanasi, Vadodara, Vishakhapatinam, Kota and
Pharmaceuticals and Drugs
Antibiotics are prepared at Pimpri and Rishikesh. The Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited has 5 plants at Hyderabad, Rishikesh, Chennai, Gurgaon and Muzaffarpur. A number of other units are concentrated in Mumbai, Baroda, Delhi, Kolkata and Kanpur.
Pesticides in India Delhi and Alwaye Sugar Industry
JP, Maharashtra, AP, TN, Karnataka and Bihar.
Aircraft Industry in India
Hindustan Aeronautics India Ltd. was formed by merging two aircraft factories at Bangalore and Kanpur. Four other factories are at Nasik, Hyderabad, Koraput (Orissa), Lucknow.
Rubber Industry in India
Bareilly (UP), Baroda (Gujarat Synthetic Rubber Units, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar-Reclaimed Rubber Units.
Water Transport in India
Most efficient, least costly and environment friendly means of transportation. The total length of navigable waterways in Indian comprising rivers, canals, backwaters, etc, is 14,500 km out of which 3700 km is navigable by mechanised boats.
The government has recognised the following National Waterways of India:
- NW 1: Allahabad to Haldia – 1,629 km
- NW 2: Sadia to Dhubari (on Brahmaputra river) – 819 km
- NW 3: Kollam to Kottapuram – 186 km
- NW 4: Kakinada to Marakkanam (Along Godawari and Krishna river) – 1,100 km
Ports in India
The Waterways Authority in India divides Indian ports into three categories, major, minor and intermediate.
India has about 190 ports in all, with 12 major and the rest intermediate and minor.
All these ports are administered by the respective Port Trusts, except the newly constructed Ennore port which is under the Ennore Port Ltd. Company.
Salient Features :
- Kolkata Port (including Haldia) : Kolkata is a riverine port, located about 128 km from the Bay of Bengal on the banks of river Hooghly. Haldia was developed because excessive silting prevented the entry of large marine vessels in
- Paradip Port : Located on the Orissa coast along the Bay of Bengal. India exports raw iron to Japan from
- Vishakhapatnam Port : The deepest port, located in Andhra Pradesh. It serves the Bhilai and Rourkela steel plants.
- Chennai Port : Oldest artificial harbour. This port ranks only second after Mumbai in terms of the traffic handling capacity.
- Ennore Port : Declared a major port in 2001. It is the first port with corporate participation. Provided with all the modern facilities for handling the thermal coal required for Tamil Nadu Electricity Board Power
- Tuticorin Port : It came into existence during the reign of Pandya
- It has an artificial deep sea harbour.
- Cochin Port : A fine natural harbour located on Kerala coast. Handles the export of tea, cofee and spices and import of petroleum and
- New Mangalore Port : The ‘Gateway of Karnataka’. Handles the export of iron-ore of
- Marmugao Port : It has a naval base. India’s leading iron-ore port.
- Mumbai Port : A natural port, India’s busiest. A new port, Nhava Sheva, is being developed near Mumbai
- Jawaharlal Nehru Port : Occupies the 5th position in the world’s faster growing
- Kandla Port : Called the ‘offspring of partition’ as it was developed after the partition as a substitute of Karachi port. It is a tidal port and a free trade zone located in the Rann of Kachchh.