INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Indus Valley

• The Harappan culture existed along the Indus River in what is present day Pakistan.
• It was named after the city of Harappa. Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-Daro were important centers of the Indus valley civilization.
• This Indus Valley “civilization” flourished around 4000-1000 B.C.

Early Harappan-Ravi Phase 3300-2800 BC

• This distinctive, regional culture which emerged is called Early or Pre-Harappan.
• Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making.
• Domesticated crops included peas, sesame seeds, dates and cotton.
• Domestic animals also used, such as the water buffalo.
• Mud brick for building.

Middle Harappan-Integration Era 2600-1900 BC

• By 2500 BCE, communities had been turned into urban centers (integration).
• Six such urban centers have been discovered, including: Harappa, Mohenjo Daro and Dicki in Pakistan, along with Gonorreala, Dokalingam and Mangalore in India.
• In total, over 1052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Florence River and its tributaries.
• Irrigation used to increase crop production and mud brick structures.

Late Harappan-Cemetery H  1700-1300 BC

• Cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns. This is completely different to the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins.
• Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or star motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.
• Expansion of settlements into the east.
• Rice became a main crop.
• Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used.
• Continued use of mud brick for building.

Natural Resources

• The Indus Valley contained numerous natural resources that were an important part of Harappan civilization.
• Resources included:
  • Fresh water and timber.
  • Materials such as gold, silver, semi-precious stones.
  • Marine resources.

Major Cities: Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa

• The cities are well known for their impressive, organized and regular layout.
• They have well laid our plumbing and drainage system, including indoor toilets.
• Over one thousand other towns and villages also existed in this region.

Cities

The similarities in plan and construction between Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa indicate that they were part of a unified government with extreme organization.

Both cities were constructed of the same type and shape of bricks.

• The two cities may have existed simultaneously and their sizes suggest that they served as capitals of their provinces.
• In contrast to other civilizations, burials found from these cities are not elaborate; they are more simplistic and contain few material goods.
• Remains of palaces or temples in the cities have not been found.

No hard evidence exists indicating military activity, though the cities did contain fortifications and artifacts such as copper and bronze knives, spears, and arrowheads were recovered.

Mohenjo-Daro

• This shows the high western mound made up of a massive mud brick platform and brick houses of the Harappan period ( 2600 to 1900 B. C.).
• On top of the Harappan structures is a Buddhist period stupa made of mud brick that dates to the first century A.D.

The Great Bath

• The “great bath” is the earliest public water tank.
• The tank measures approximately 12 meters north-south and 7 meters wide, with a maximum depth of 2.4 meters.
• Two staircases lead down into the tank from the north and south and small sockets at the edges of the stairs are thought to have held wooden planks or treads.
• At the foot of the stairs is a small ledge with a brick edging that extends the entire width of the pool.

Streets

• At Mohenjo-Daro narrow streets and alleyways are off of the major streets, leading into more private neighborhoods.
• Many of the brick houses were two stories high, with thick walls and high ceilings to keep the rooms cool in the hot summer months.

Wells

• Private wells were rebuilt over many generations for large households and neighborhoods.
• This well in DK G area at Mohenjo-daro stands like a chimney because all of the surrounding earth has been removed by excavation.

Harappa

• The high mound at Harappa (Mound AB) is surrounded by a massive mud brick city wall with large square ramparts.
• One of these eroding ramparts is visible through the underbrush that now covers the site. The flags mark the tomb of a Muslim saint.

Granary

• The “granary” of Harappa is found on Mound F.
• It is a brick structure that was built on a massive brick foundation over 45 meters north-south and 45 meters east-west.

Well

• A large public well and public bathing platforms were found in the southern part of Mound AB at Harappa.
• These public bathing areas may also have been used for washing clothes as is common in many traditional cities in Pakistan and India today.
• Inside the city is an area that has been identified as a crafts quarter.
• Large quantities of manufacturing debris have been found in this area indicating the presence of workshops for making stone beads, shell ornaments, glazed faience ornaments, stone tools and possibly even gold working.

Language

• The Indus (or Harappan) people used a pictographic script.
• Some 3500 specimens of this script survive in stamp seals carved in stone, in molded terracotta and faience amulets, in fragments of pottery, and in a few other categories of inscribed objects.

In addition to the pictographic signs, the seals and amulets often contain iconographic motifs, mostly realistic pictures of animals

• apparently worshipped as sacred, and a few cultic scenes, including anthropomorphic deities and worshippers.
• This material is important to the investigation of the Harappan language and religion, which continue to be major issues.

The origins of Indus writing

• The origins of Indus writing can now be traced to the Ravi Phase (c. 3300-2800 BC) at Harappa.
• Some inscriptions were made on the bottom of the pottery before firing.

Seals:

• Silver Seals and Clay Seals were used

Economy-Trade

• The Harappan civilization was mainly urban and mercantile.
• Inhabitants of the Indus valley traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan, and Persia for gold, silver, copper, and turquoise.

Economy-Agriculture

• The Mesopotamian model of irrigated agriculture was used to take advantage of the fertile grounds along the Indus River.
• Earthen walls were built to control the river’s annual flooding. Crops grown included wheat, barley, peas, melons, and sesame.
• This civilization was the first to cultivate cotton for the production of cloth. Several animals were domesticated including the elephant which was used for its ivory.

Economy

• Cubical weights in graduated sizes.
• These weights conform to the standard Harappan binary weight system that was used in all of the settlements.

The smallest weight in this series is 0.856 grams and the most common weight is approximately 13.7 grams, which is in the 16th ratio.

• These weights were found in recent excavations at Harappa and may have been used for controlling trade and possibly for collecting taxes.

Harappan Astronomy

• Although the translation of the Harappan script is still not complete, there are numerous indications that Harappans were well versed in astronomy.
• The straight streets of the Indus cities are oriented towards the cardinal directions.
• Astronomical evidence dates the compilation of the Vedic calendar at around the 23rd century B.C., when the Indus civilization flourished.
• Like other urban civilizations, it undoubtedly needed a calendar that adjusted to the lunar and solar transitions.
• Evidence for the Harappan origin of this myth is provided by Indus seals which show a row of six human figures.
• Their female character is suggested by the one long plait of hair, which has remained characteristic of traditional Indian women.

“Unicorn”

• unicorn seal was also discovered during the late 1927-31 excavations at Mohenjo-Daro.
• One theory holds that the bull actually has two horns, but that these have been stylized to one because of the complexity of depicting three dimensions.
• However the manufacturing and design process behind seals was so sophisticated that the depiction of three dimensions might not necessarily have been a problem.

Ornaments

This collection of gold and agate ornaments (see next slide) includes objects found at both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

• At the top are fillets of hammered gold that would have been worn around the forehead.
• The other ornaments include bangles, chokers, long pendant necklaces, rings, earrings, conical hair ornaments, and broaches.
• These ornaments were never buried with the dead, but were passed on from one generation to the next.
• These ornaments were hidden under the floors in the homes of wealthy merchants or goldsmiths.

Necklace:

• Necklace from Mohenjo-Daro made from gold, agate, jasper, steatite and green stone.
• The gold beads are hollow and the pendant agate and jasper beads are attached with thick gold wire.
• Steatite beads with gold caps serve to separate each of the pendant beads.

Burial

• The body was placed inside a wooden coffin (which later decayed) and entombed in a rectangular pit surrounded with burial offerings in pottery vessels.
• The man was buried wearing a necklace of 340 graduated steatite beads and three separate pendant beads made of natural stone and three gold beads. A single copper bead was found at his waist.
• Burial of woman and infant, Harappa.
• This burial was disturbed in antiquity, possibly by ancient Harappan grave robbers.
• Besides the fact that the body is flipped and the pottery disturbed, the left arm of the woman is broken and shell bangles that would normally be found on the left arm are missing.
• The infant was buried in a small pit beneath the legs of the mother.

Collapse of Harappan “Civilization”

• The de-urbanization period of the Harappan Civilization saw the collapse and disappearance of the urban phenomena in the South Asia.
• The theme for this period is localization.
• Architectural and ceramic forms changed along with the loss of writing, planned settlements, public sanitation, monumental architecture, seaborne and exotic trade, seals, and weights.

Four Theories of Collapse

• Archaeologists have offered four explanations for the collapse of the Harappan “Civilization”.
• Three are based on ecological factors: intense flooding, decrease in precipitation, and the dessication of the Sarasvati River.
• The fourth hypothesis is that of the Aryan Invasion, proposed by Sir R. E. Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggott.
• Fourth largely abandoned in the 1940s in favor of a combination of factors from ecological disasters.

Civilization?

• Criticism of calling it a civilization because even though the culture is fairly homogenous, there is a lack of elite (such as high status burials).
• Thus, some researchers argue that it was actually more of a chiefdom, rather than a state-level society.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE:

Introduction

The places connected with the principal events of Buddha’s life, namely birth (at Lumbini), enlightenment (at Bodh-gaya), first preaching (Sarnath) and decease (Kasia) are looked upon with great sanctity. To these were added four other places also intimately associated with his life (Shravasti, Sankasya, Rajgriha, Vaisali) which

• together formed the Ashthamahasthanas (eight holy places) celebrated alike in Buddhist lores and art forms.
• The earliest Buddhist monuments in India are attributable to Ashoka (273-32 B.C.) who exerted his energies and the resources of his empire to the propagation of his empire.
• He is credited with the authorship of two principle buddhist architectural styles, viz.,
• Pillars (Stambhas)

Development of buddhist architecture

• Establishment :Emperor Ashoka
• Period : 3^rd century BC
• Place : South Asia
• Emperor Ashoka inaugurated Buddhism as the state religion of his empire.
• The primitive Buddhism rejected any form of image worship and hence Buddhist Architecture began with the establishment of various symbols representing different aspects of Buddha’s life, namely Stupas, Bodhi tree indicating enlightenment, Wheel of Law, as the first sermon as well as the corporeal vehicle of Buddha, and his footprints.
• In India, early Buddhist art is accredited to be a product of the Ashokan School.
• Significance of this ‘school’ lies in the fact that India thence through Buddhism was in a position to dictate to the rest of Asia, its religion, its symbolism and its art.

Contributions by ashokan school

The principal contributions made by this school to the art and architecture of that period are:

• Series of edicts (inscribed on rocks)
• Number of stupas
• Certain monolithic pillars 
  • Several monolithic accessories to shrines
  • Remains of a vast palace, &
  • Group of rock-cut chambers.

  Features of Buddhist Architecture:

  The major features of this style are:

  • Stupas (Topes)
  • Stambhas (Lats)
  • Chaityas (Caves)
  • Vihaaras (Monastries)

  Out of these, the prominent examples of Chaitya Hall and Viharas can be found in Rock-Cut Architecture.

  Even the Stupa can be found in certain Chaitya halls in a miniature form.

  Although more often, they are of a bigger scale in an independent complex. In such cases they are encased in stone masonry.

  Stupas (domes)

  • Definition: Dome-shaped structures used to house sacred relics of the monks and hence also known as “Relic-shrines”.
  • Construction Materials: Earth materials covered with stones or bricks. The plan, elevation and the basic structure all derived from the circle.

  Stambhas (pillars)

  • The next development was the free standing monolithic columns erected over sites selected because of their sacred associations. They were basically stone objects.
  • Definition: In the context Of Hindu Mythology, stambha, is believed to be a cosmic column.

  Design: A stambha consists of a circular column or shaft slightly tapering towards the summit (monolithic). On top of this shaft is the Persepolitan bell or the inverted lotus shaped base. Above this is the abacus on top of which rests the crowning sculpture. These three portions were carved out of a single stone (monolithic). The famous iron pillar from the Gupta period is a fine specimen, withstanding exposure to rain & storm, yet remaining smooth and unrusted bearing testimony to the mastery of Indian metal-casting.

  Chaityas (caves)

  • The next significant development was the rock-cut architecture.
  • Its earliest and most imp. Marvel was the Lomas Rishi Cave, at Barabar hills, Bihar.
  • Derived from timber huts and wooden arch. of Vedic times.
  • They were rectangular halls, with finely polished interior walls. There were a number of well proportioned pillars, generally around 35, and a semi-circular roof. Opposite one entrance stood a stupa. All the pillars have capitals on them, with carvings of a kneeling elephant mounted on bell-shaped bases.
  • Architecturally, chaityas show similarities to Roman Design concepts of columnsand  The monks built many structures which were carved out of a single massive rock, done with hammer and chisel, bare hands.
  • The chaityas were almost 40 meters long, 15 meters wide and 15 meters high.
  • Design: The pillars had three parts: prop, which is the base which is buried into the ground; the shaft, the main body of the pillar which is polished and chiseled; and capital, the head of the pillar where figures of animals are carved. The Stupa at the end of the Chaitya Hall has an umbrella at the top. This Umbrella suggests association with Buddhism. There is a wooden facade, made out of teak wood. The facade makes it look as if the entire structure was resting on the back of an elephant with ivory tusks and metal ornaments.

  The ascetic nature of early Buddhism and Jainism was well suited to living a life away from the cities, in natural caves and grottoes in the hillsides. In a circle of two hundred miles around modern Nasik, the rugged hills of the Western Ghats are naturally suited to the creation 

  • of living space in the hillside – with steep cliffs providing an ideal surface for carving in.

  Vihaaras (MONASTRIES)

  • The Buddhist temples and monasteries, found in every Buddhist country, form another distinctive example of the Buddhist architecture.
  • The Buddhist temples in India are superb examples of the temple architecture with the most prominent one at Bodh Gaya (Mahabodhi temple), the place of the Buddha’s enlightenment.
  • Other major Buddhist temples in India, which are fine examples of the golden Indian architecture, are at Sanchi(450 CE), Taxila and Sarnath. Similarly, other temples such as those at Cambodia (the famous Angkor Wat temple), Sri Lanka, Thailand, China and Japan presents an excellent example of the Buddhist architecture.
  • Japan boasts of being the greatest surviving concentration of the Buddhist art and architecture in its 80,000 temples, most of which retain original features from as early as the Nara period(710 CE – 794 CE).
  • Secondly, monasteries, a dwelling place for community of monks, presents fine example of the Buddhist architecture and charismatic Buddhist spirituality.
  • In India, the ruins of the Nalanda monastic university and the ancient monasteries at Sarnath, whose ruins are still present along with some of the latest ones, still depicts the golden past of Buddhism and developed architectural style in India.

  The Tibetan, Japanese and Chinese monasteries along with others presents a very distinctive style of architecture with splendid use of colour and ornamentation. The use of images, paintings, thangkas and mandalas in these monasteries produces rich iconography not only architecturally, but artistically as well. 

  • The Mahabodhi Templeis a Buddhist temple in Bodh Gaya, marking the location where the Buddha, is said to have attained enlightenment.  Bodh Gaya is located about 96km from Patna, Bihar.
  • Next to the temple, on its western side, is the holy Bodhi tree and the monastery there the Bodhimanda Vihara. The tallest tower is 55 metres (180 ft) tall.

  Pagodas 

  • Pagodas are the principle form of Buddhist architecture, which are used as religious multistory Buddhist towers, erected as a memorial or shrine.
  • They are symbols of five elements of the universe – earth, water, fire, air and ether, and along with them, the most important factor – Consciousness, which is the ultimate reality.The early Buddhists had started using the royal symbol of ‘Pagoda’, by applying an umbrella-like structure to symbolise the Buddha, which soon took over the functions of the Stupas.
  • In the 3rd century BCE, an Indian emperor Ashoka, who had converted to Buddhism, promoted the Pagodas by building 84,000 of them throughout India, and since then, Pagodas have been an inseparable parts of all those countries, which practice Buddhism : China, Japan, Korea, India and Southeast Asia.
  • Myanmar houses the Mahamuni Pagoda, one of the most important pagodas in Mandalay, which has an ancient statue of the Buddha, brought there by king Bodawpaya in 1784 CE.

  The Indian Pagodas, full of carvings and sculptures, are mainly pyramidical in shape and taper to apex, whereas those of China and other Asian regions are stereotypical pagodas with tiled and upward curving roofs.